11. Subject and predicate

Every sentence has a subject. This is the noun or pronoun about whom or which the sentence is giving information – typically the subject would either be described (I am tall) or be performing an action (We are having lunch). Sometimes, the subject could be a verb as well (Reading is a good hobby for children).

For instance,
Maya is sleeping. (The sentence tells us what the subject Maya is doing).
That tiger is extremely ferocious. (The sentence describes the nature of the subject, the tiger).
Running is beneficial for the body. (The sentence describes the benefits of running).

The rest of the sentence is the predicate. It provides information about the subject. In the examples above, the part of the sentence which is not underlined is the predicate. The predicate will necessarily have a verb.

11.1 Object
Some sentences will have an additional noun or pronoun, which is being acted upon by the subject.

For instance,
I am going to school. (The subject, I, is going to the object, the school).
The tiger killed the deer. (The subject, the tiger, killed the object, the deer).
The tiger escaped from the zoo. (The subject, the tiger, escaped from the object, the zoo).

12. Phrases and clauses

12.1 Phrase

A phrase is a group of words which is part of a sentence but not a complete sentence. It is a concept within the sentence, and functions as a unit. We do not take any group of words within a sentence as a phrase, a phrase is cohesive and is either a concept of has a function.

Example: the boy, in the house, as old as time itself, the brown puppy, the red sports car, by the winding river, a hot day, etc..

The types of phrases are enumerated here.

1) Noun phrase – a phrase with a noun and its modifier (the modifier is usually an adjective), where the entire phrase functions as a noun.
Example: a wide road, a sultry afternoon, a tall tree.

2) Verb phrase – a phrase with multiple verbs (can study, is speaking) or a verb and its modifier (typically an adverb), functioning as a verb together.
Example: am sleepy, was excited, walking quickly.

3) Adjective phrase – a phrase with one or more adjectives, which functions as an adjective.
Example: very small, dazzlingly bright, really yummy.

4) Adverb phrases – a phrase with one or more adverbs, which functions as an adverb.
Example: with great regret, right next to the house, surprisingly good, by hook or by crook.

5) Prepositional phrase –has a proposition followed by an object (noun/pronoun), along with any modifiers (articles, determiners, adjectives). Such a phrase will be an adjective or adverb phrase, based on the sentence.
Example: by the river, to the corner, through the glass doors, within a week, under these circumstances.

6) Infinitive phrase – a phrase which begins with an infinitive (to) and is followed by a verb.
Example: to succeed in life, to donate my time, to study economics.

7) Gerund phrase – a phrase which begins with a gerund, and the phrase functions as a gerund.

Example:
Walking in the garden, I chanced to meet them.
Having a meal at a restaurant is not something I indulge in often.
Taking my dog for a walk is the best part of my day.

8) Participial phrase – a phrase which begins with a participle.

Example:
She showed up for her first day at work brimming with confidence.
Grinning from ear to ear, I collected my new Apple iPad.
Painted jet black, your car is almost impossible to see at night.

9) Appositive phrase – a phrase which refines, renames or extends the word which comes after another noun. The phrase provides additional information about the noun or noun phrase.

Example:
My favourite author , JK Rowling, is coming to our city today.
His pride and joy, his car, just won him another race.
Eww! Your horrible pet, the lizard, has run amuck in the kitchen!

Note how the underlined phrases are refining the nouns after them (JK Rowling, his car, the lizard).

12.2 Clause

Clauses are a part of the sentence, including the subject OR the object AND a verb.

Example: I am sleeping, gone with the wind, while the sun shines, because I can't wait.

Clauses are divided into two main types – independent and dependent clauses.

12.2.1 Independent clauses can be complete sentences. The independent clauses are underlined in the following examples. Note that this part can be a complete sentence on its own.

Example:
I hailed her in delight.
The crowd chanted his name all night.
I thought I could complete the task on my own.

12.2.2 Dependent clauses are only part of a sentence, and never be a standalone sentence. These clauses begin with a preposition or a conjunction.

We will go out when my wife arrives.
You will burn out if you work all seven days.
Since I didn't have enough money, I could not buy the painting.

Dependent clauses are categorised based on the part of speech they modify. The different types are:

1) Noun clause – behaves like a noun

Example:
I hope that he wins the race.
Can you show me how this was made?.

2) Adjective clause – modifies a noun or pronoun.

Example:
This is the girl who ferried us across the river.
The elephant that had broken loose has been recaptured.

These are also called relative clauses, as they usually begin with a relative pronoun/determiner like who, which, that, whenever, of which.

3) Adverb clause – modifies a verb or an adjective.

Example:
Wait until I call you.
I will go home after I finish this report.

13. Cheatsheet

1) Nouns are words that are used to describe people, animals, things, places, ideas or events.
Example: country, India, river, Ganges, Narendra Modi, freedom, sand, etc.

2) Pronouns are words which are used in place of nouns.
Example: I, me, you, yours, he, she, his, him, her, we, us, they, them, this, that, these, it, who, whom, etc.

3) Verbs are words that describe an action or state of being.
Example: laugh, shout, find, is, am, be etc.

Verbs are of the following types – action verbs (build, driving), state of being or auxiliary verbs (is, have, am), linking verbs (looks, feels, are). Linking verbs include state of being verbs.

4) Adjectives are words used to describe nouns or pronouns. Adjectives typically specify characteristics of nouns or pronouns, such as quality, number, shape or size.
Example: beautiful, fast, wise, etc.

5) Adverbs are words used to describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions “how”, “where”, “when”, “how much”.
Example: fast, slowly, loudly, often, very etc.

Adverbs are of the following types – adverbs of manner (answering how, e.g., well, fast), adverbs of time (answering when, e.g. today, last month), adverbs of place (answering where, e.g., here, there), adverbs of frequency (answering how many times, e.g., daily, always), adverbs of degree (answering how much, e.g., very, enough) and adverbs of certainty (answering how sure we are, e.g. maybe, definitely, possibly).

6) Articles (a, an, the) are usually used in front of nouns.

7) Determiners are words which refine or limit the noun (or group of nouns) following them.
Example: any, my, that, whose, etc.

8) Prepositions are words that are used to add additional information (e.g. place or time). They are also used to connect nouns/pronouns to the verb or adjective.
Example: about, across, beside, between, during, except, for, in, on, to, with, etc.

9) Conjunctions are words which join words, phrases or clauses in a sentence.
Example: and, but, for, yet, so, or, nor etc.

10) Interjections are words used to convey emotion, typically strong or sudden emotion.
Interjections are usually followed by exclamation marks.
Example: congratulations, hey, alas, of course, yay etc.

Basic units of a sentence:

1) The Subject is the main noun or pronoun, and the predicate is the rest of the sentence.
The predicate provides information about the subject.
2) The Object is an optional additional noun/pronoun in the sentence, which is being acted upon by the subject.
3) A Phrase is a group of words which is part of a sentence but not a complete sentence. A phrase usually does not have a noun/pronoun or a verb.
4) A Clause is a part of the sentence, having the subject/object and verb. As such, a clause can sometimes be a standalone sentence.