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CAT 2025 Lesson : Verbal: Jan '25 to Feb '25 - RC Basics - Question Types - 10 Feb 2025
The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
[CAT 2024 Slot 1]
In the summer of 2022, subscribers to the US streaming service HBO MAX were alarmed to discover that dozens of the platform’s offerings – from the Covid-themed heist thriller Locked Down to the recent remake of The Witches – had been quietly removed from the service . . . The news seemed like vindication to those who had long warned that streaming was more about controlling access to the cultural commons than expanding it, as did reports (since denied by the show’s creators) that Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects.
What’s less clear is whether the commonly prescribed cure for these cultural ills – a return to the material pleasures of physical media – is the right one. While the makers of Blu-ray discs claim they have a shelf life of 100 years, such statistics remain largely theoretical until they come to pass, and are dependent on storage conditions, not to mention the continued availability of playback equipment. The humble DVD has already proved far less resilient, with many early releases already beginning to deteriorate in quality Digital movie purchases provide even less security. Any film “bought” on iTunes could disappear if you move to another territory with a different rights agreement and try to redownload it. It’s a bold new frontier in the commodification of art: the birth of the product recall. After a man took to Twitter to bemoan losing access to Cars 2 after moving from Canada to Australia, Apple clarified that users who downloaded films to their devices would retain permanent access to those downloads, even if they relocated to a hemisphere where the [content was] subject to a different set of rights agreements. Thanks to the company’s ironclad digital rights management technology, however, such files cannot be moved or backed up, locking you into watching with your Apple account.
Anyone who does manage to acquire Digital Rights Management free (DRM-free) copies of their favourite films must nonetheless grapple with ever-changing file format standards, not to mention data decay – the gradual process by which electronic information slowly but surely corrupts. Only the regular migration of files from hard drive to hard drive can delay the inevitable, in a sisyphean battle against the ravages of digital time.
In a sense, none of this is new. Charlie Chaplin burned the negative of his 1926 film A Woman of the Sea as a tax write-off. Many more films have been lost through accident, negligence or plain indifference. During a heatwave in July 1937, a Fox film vault in New Jersey burned down, destroying a majority of the silent films produced by the studio.
Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema. Today, with film studios keen to stress the breadth of their back catalogues (or to put in Hollywood terms, the value of their IPs), audiences may start to wonder why those same studios seem happy to set the vault alight themselves if it’ll help next quarter’s numbers.
1) Which one of the following statements, if true, would best invalidate the main argument of the passage?
(1) Studios and streaming services have committed to giving customers perpetual and platform-independent access to the original digital content they have paid for.
(2) Recent research has irrefutably proven that Blu-Ray discs have a shelf life of at least 100 years.
(3) Improved cloud storage services have made it possible for movie collections to now be preserved in perpetuity, without the need to keep migrating the files.
(4) When moving to a different geographical location, customers can easily use Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to bypass geo-blocking and regain access to their content on any streaming service.
2) Which one of the following statements about art best captures the arguments made in the passage?
(1) As art is increasingly created, stored and distributed digitally, access to it is counterintuitively likely to be made more difficult by the rapid churn in technology and the whims of host platforms.
(2) In the age of online subscription services, it is time to change our understanding of classic works of art being primarily immutable and easily available to the public.
(3) Works of art belong to the cultural commons and hence must remain available in perpetuity, irrespective of who pays for access to them.
(4) Accepting retroactive changes to works of art is dangerous because it will encourage creators to not put enough effort into the original attempt, given that they can always edit or update their work later.
3) “Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects.” What is the purpose of this example used in the passage?
(1) To show how unsubstantiated reports are leading to an increase in the level of distrust towards streaming services.
(2) To show that art in the digital age, specifically film, is no longer sacrosanct, and may be changed to suit changing tastes or technology.
(3) To show a practice that justifies the fears of people who feel streaming services cannot be trusted to be custodians of cultural artefacts like film.
(4) To show that streaming services are controlling access to the cultural commons rather than expanding it.
4) Which of the following statements is suggested by the sentence “Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema”?
(1) Presently, there is no reason why film studios should remove access to films once they have left the local cinema.
(2) Cinema is now no longer as ephemeral as it used to be earlier, because the technology used for creating and preserving films has improved manifold.
(3) Around a century ago, people were more accepting of not having access to films once they left the local cinema.
(4) Today, films are expected to be available for a long time, since they are no longer tied solely to their stay at the local cinema.
The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
[CAT 2024 Slot 3]
Fears of artificial intelligence (AI) have haunted humanity since the very beginning of the computer age. Hitherto these fears focused on machines using physical means to kill, enslave or replace people. But over the past couple of years new AI tools have emerged that threaten the survival of human civilisation from an unexpected direction. AI has gained some remarkable abilities to manipulate and generate language, whether with words, sounds or images. AI has thereby hacked the operating system of our civilisation.
Language is the stuff almost all human culture is made of. Human rights, for example, aren’t inscribed in our DNA. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by telling stories and writing laws. Gods aren’t physical realities. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by inventing myths and writing scriptures….What would happen once a non-human intelligence becomes better than the average human at telling stories, composing melodies, drawing images, and writing laws and scriptures? When people think about Chatgpt and other new AI tools, they are often drawn to examples like school children using AI to write their essays. What will happen to the school system when kids do that? But this kind of question misses the big picture. Forget about school essays. Think of the next American presidential race in 2024, and try to imagine the impact of AI tools that can be made to mass-produce political content, fake-news stories and scriptures for new cults…
Through its mastery of language, AI could even form intimate relationships with people, and use the power of intimacy to change our opinions and worldviews. Although there is no indication that AI has any consciousness or feelings of its own, to foster fake intimacy with humans it is enough if the AI can make them feel emotionally attached to it….
What will happen to the course of history when AI takes over culture, and begins producing stories, melodies, laws and religions? Previous tools like the printing press and radio helped spread the cultural ideas of humans, but they never created new cultural ideas of their own. AI is fundamentally different. AI can create completely new ideas, completely new culture…. Of course, the new power of AI could be used for good purposes as well. I won’t dwell on this, because the people who develop AI talk about it enough….
We can still regulate the new AI tools, but we must act quickly. Whereas nukes cannot invent more powerful nukes, AI can make exponentially more powerful AI.… Unregulated AI deployments would create social chaos, which would benefit autocrats and ruin democracies. Democracy is a conversation, and conversations rely on language. When AI hacks language, it could destroy our ability to have meaningful conversations, thereby destroying democracy….And the first regulation I would suggest is to make it mandatory for AI to disclose that it is an AI. If I am having a conversation with someone, and I cannot tell whether it is a human or an AI—that’s the end of democracy. This text has been generated by a human. Or has it?
5) The tone of the passage could best be described as
(1) cautionary, because the author lays out some adverse effects of the proliferation of unregulated AI tools.
(2) quizzical, as the passage poses several questions, concluding with the question of whether or not the passage content has been generated by AI.
(3) alarmist, because the passage discusses scenarios of the influence of new AI tools on language and human emotions.
(4) prescient, as the author analyses the future impact of the use of new AI tools on crucial areas of our society and culture.
6) The author identifies all of the following as dire outcomes of the capture of language by AI EXCEPT that it could
(1) out-strip human creativity and endeavours in the spheres such as art and music and, in the formulation of laws.
(2) eventually subvert democratic processes through the mass creation and spread of fake political content and news.
(3) apply its mastery of language to create strong emotional ties which could exacerbate the polarization of political views.
(4) spawn a completely new culture through its ability to create new ideas and opinions.
7) We can infer that the author is most likely to agree with which of the following statements?
(1) Apart from its drawbacks, AI tools have been beneficial in boosting technological and industrial advance worldwide.
(2) One of the biggest casualties from the spread of unregulated AI is likely to be the democratic process.
(3) The commonly expressed fear that future AI developments will fatally harm humans is unfounded.
(4) People’s fears of the dangers of students using ChatGPT and other new AI tools are unfounded.
8) The author terms language “the operating system of our civilization” for all the following reasons EXCEPT that it
(1) has laid the foundation for the creation of cultural artefacts through writing and telling of stories.
(2) can influence political views and opinions as it engenders close emotional ties among people.
(3) is the basis of AI tools like ChatGPT which can be used to generate academic content and opinion.
(4) is fundamental to the articulation and spread of human values and culture in our society.
The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
[CAT 2020 Slot 2]
Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings. Generally, the victim(s) of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression. Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent. Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger. Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury. For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject. The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.). A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus. The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed. The first variable is the aggressor him/herself. The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur. The third variable is the target or victim of aggression.
Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts. At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors. Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges). Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison to other species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism. It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars. Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies. For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals. Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of non violent crimes. Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women. One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women.
9) The author identifies three essential factors according to which theories of aggression are most commonly categorised. Which of the following options is closest to the factors identified by the author?
(1) Psychologically – Sociologically – Medically.
(2) Aggressor – Circumstances of aggression – Victim.
(3) Extreme – Moderate – Mild.
(4) Hostile – Instrumental – Hormonal.
10) The author discusses all of the following arguments in the passage EXCEPT that:
(1) men in general are believed to be more hormonally driven to exhibit violence than women.
(2) several studies indicate that aggression may have roots in the biological condition of humanity.
(3) the nature of aggression can vary depending on several factors, including intent.
(4) aggression in most societies is kept under control through moderating the death instinct identified by Freud.
11) All of the following statements can be seen as logically implied by the arguments of the passage EXCEPT:
(1) the Freudian theory of suicide as self-inflicted aggression implies that an aggressive act need not be sought to be avoided in order for it to be considered aggression.
(2) a common theory of aggression is that it is the result of an abnormally low neural regulation of testosterone.
(3) if the alleged aggressive act is not sought to be avoided, it cannot really be considered aggression.
(4) Freud’s theory of aggression proposes that aggression results from the suppression of aggressive urges.
12) “[A]n enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject.” Which one of the following best explicates the larger point being made by the author here?
(1) Information revealed by subjecting an enemy combatant to torture is not always reliable because of the animosity involved.
(2) When an enemy combatant refuses to reveal information, the use of torture can sometimes involve real feelings of hostility.
(3) In certain kinds of aggression, inflicting pain is not the objective, and is no more than a utilitarian means to achieve another end.
(4) The use of torture to extract information is most effective when the torturer is not emotionally involved in the torture.
Solutions
1) 1
2) 1
3) 3
4) 4
5) 1
6) 3
7) 2
8) 3
9) 2
10) 4
11) 2
12) 3
[CAT 2024 Slot 1]
In the summer of 2022, subscribers to the US streaming service HBO MAX were alarmed to discover that dozens of the platform’s offerings – from the Covid-themed heist thriller Locked Down to the recent remake of The Witches – had been quietly removed from the service . . . The news seemed like vindication to those who had long warned that streaming was more about controlling access to the cultural commons than expanding it, as did reports (since denied by the show’s creators) that Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects.
What’s less clear is whether the commonly prescribed cure for these cultural ills – a return to the material pleasures of physical media – is the right one. While the makers of Blu-ray discs claim they have a shelf life of 100 years, such statistics remain largely theoretical until they come to pass, and are dependent on storage conditions, not to mention the continued availability of playback equipment. The humble DVD has already proved far less resilient, with many early releases already beginning to deteriorate in quality Digital movie purchases provide even less security. Any film “bought” on iTunes could disappear if you move to another territory with a different rights agreement and try to redownload it. It’s a bold new frontier in the commodification of art: the birth of the product recall. After a man took to Twitter to bemoan losing access to Cars 2 after moving from Canada to Australia, Apple clarified that users who downloaded films to their devices would retain permanent access to those downloads, even if they relocated to a hemisphere where the [content was] subject to a different set of rights agreements. Thanks to the company’s ironclad digital rights management technology, however, such files cannot be moved or backed up, locking you into watching with your Apple account.
Anyone who does manage to acquire Digital Rights Management free (DRM-free) copies of their favourite films must nonetheless grapple with ever-changing file format standards, not to mention data decay – the gradual process by which electronic information slowly but surely corrupts. Only the regular migration of files from hard drive to hard drive can delay the inevitable, in a sisyphean battle against the ravages of digital time.
In a sense, none of this is new. Charlie Chaplin burned the negative of his 1926 film A Woman of the Sea as a tax write-off. Many more films have been lost through accident, negligence or plain indifference. During a heatwave in July 1937, a Fox film vault in New Jersey burned down, destroying a majority of the silent films produced by the studio.
Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema. Today, with film studios keen to stress the breadth of their back catalogues (or to put in Hollywood terms, the value of their IPs), audiences may start to wonder why those same studios seem happy to set the vault alight themselves if it’ll help next quarter’s numbers.
1) Which one of the following statements, if true, would best invalidate the main argument of the passage?
(1) Studios and streaming services have committed to giving customers perpetual and platform-independent access to the original digital content they have paid for.
(2) Recent research has irrefutably proven that Blu-Ray discs have a shelf life of at least 100 years.
(3) Improved cloud storage services have made it possible for movie collections to now be preserved in perpetuity, without the need to keep migrating the files.
(4) When moving to a different geographical location, customers can easily use Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to bypass geo-blocking and regain access to their content on any streaming service.
2) Which one of the following statements about art best captures the arguments made in the passage?
(1) As art is increasingly created, stored and distributed digitally, access to it is counterintuitively likely to be made more difficult by the rapid churn in technology and the whims of host platforms.
(2) In the age of online subscription services, it is time to change our understanding of classic works of art being primarily immutable and easily available to the public.
(3) Works of art belong to the cultural commons and hence must remain available in perpetuity, irrespective of who pays for access to them.
(4) Accepting retroactive changes to works of art is dangerous because it will encourage creators to not put enough effort into the original attempt, given that they can always edit or update their work later.
3) “Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects.” What is the purpose of this example used in the passage?
(1) To show how unsubstantiated reports are leading to an increase in the level of distrust towards streaming services.
(2) To show that art in the digital age, specifically film, is no longer sacrosanct, and may be changed to suit changing tastes or technology.
(3) To show a practice that justifies the fears of people who feel streaming services cannot be trusted to be custodians of cultural artefacts like film.
(4) To show that streaming services are controlling access to the cultural commons rather than expanding it.
4) Which of the following statements is suggested by the sentence “Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema”?
(1) Presently, there is no reason why film studios should remove access to films once they have left the local cinema.
(2) Cinema is now no longer as ephemeral as it used to be earlier, because the technology used for creating and preserving films has improved manifold.
(3) Around a century ago, people were more accepting of not having access to films once they left the local cinema.
(4) Today, films are expected to be available for a long time, since they are no longer tied solely to their stay at the local cinema.
The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
[CAT 2024 Slot 3]
Fears of artificial intelligence (AI) have haunted humanity since the very beginning of the computer age. Hitherto these fears focused on machines using physical means to kill, enslave or replace people. But over the past couple of years new AI tools have emerged that threaten the survival of human civilisation from an unexpected direction. AI has gained some remarkable abilities to manipulate and generate language, whether with words, sounds or images. AI has thereby hacked the operating system of our civilisation.
Language is the stuff almost all human culture is made of. Human rights, for example, aren’t inscribed in our DNA. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by telling stories and writing laws. Gods aren’t physical realities. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by inventing myths and writing scriptures….What would happen once a non-human intelligence becomes better than the average human at telling stories, composing melodies, drawing images, and writing laws and scriptures? When people think about Chatgpt and other new AI tools, they are often drawn to examples like school children using AI to write their essays. What will happen to the school system when kids do that? But this kind of question misses the big picture. Forget about school essays. Think of the next American presidential race in 2024, and try to imagine the impact of AI tools that can be made to mass-produce political content, fake-news stories and scriptures for new cults…
Through its mastery of language, AI could even form intimate relationships with people, and use the power of intimacy to change our opinions and worldviews. Although there is no indication that AI has any consciousness or feelings of its own, to foster fake intimacy with humans it is enough if the AI can make them feel emotionally attached to it….
What will happen to the course of history when AI takes over culture, and begins producing stories, melodies, laws and religions? Previous tools like the printing press and radio helped spread the cultural ideas of humans, but they never created new cultural ideas of their own. AI is fundamentally different. AI can create completely new ideas, completely new culture…. Of course, the new power of AI could be used for good purposes as well. I won’t dwell on this, because the people who develop AI talk about it enough….
We can still regulate the new AI tools, but we must act quickly. Whereas nukes cannot invent more powerful nukes, AI can make exponentially more powerful AI.… Unregulated AI deployments would create social chaos, which would benefit autocrats and ruin democracies. Democracy is a conversation, and conversations rely on language. When AI hacks language, it could destroy our ability to have meaningful conversations, thereby destroying democracy….And the first regulation I would suggest is to make it mandatory for AI to disclose that it is an AI. If I am having a conversation with someone, and I cannot tell whether it is a human or an AI—that’s the end of democracy. This text has been generated by a human. Or has it?
5) The tone of the passage could best be described as
(1) cautionary, because the author lays out some adverse effects of the proliferation of unregulated AI tools.
(2) quizzical, as the passage poses several questions, concluding with the question of whether or not the passage content has been generated by AI.
(3) alarmist, because the passage discusses scenarios of the influence of new AI tools on language and human emotions.
(4) prescient, as the author analyses the future impact of the use of new AI tools on crucial areas of our society and culture.
6) The author identifies all of the following as dire outcomes of the capture of language by AI EXCEPT that it could
(1) out-strip human creativity and endeavours in the spheres such as art and music and, in the formulation of laws.
(2) eventually subvert democratic processes through the mass creation and spread of fake political content and news.
(3) apply its mastery of language to create strong emotional ties which could exacerbate the polarization of political views.
(4) spawn a completely new culture through its ability to create new ideas and opinions.
7) We can infer that the author is most likely to agree with which of the following statements?
(1) Apart from its drawbacks, AI tools have been beneficial in boosting technological and industrial advance worldwide.
(2) One of the biggest casualties from the spread of unregulated AI is likely to be the democratic process.
(3) The commonly expressed fear that future AI developments will fatally harm humans is unfounded.
(4) People’s fears of the dangers of students using ChatGPT and other new AI tools are unfounded.
8) The author terms language “the operating system of our civilization” for all the following reasons EXCEPT that it
(1) has laid the foundation for the creation of cultural artefacts through writing and telling of stories.
(2) can influence political views and opinions as it engenders close emotional ties among people.
(3) is the basis of AI tools like ChatGPT which can be used to generate academic content and opinion.
(4) is fundamental to the articulation and spread of human values and culture in our society.
The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
[CAT 2020 Slot 2]
Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings. Generally, the victim(s) of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression. Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent. Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger. Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury. For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject. The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.). A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus. The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed. The first variable is the aggressor him/herself. The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur. The third variable is the target or victim of aggression.
Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts. At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors. Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges). Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison to other species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism. It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars. Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies. For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals. Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of non violent crimes. Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women. One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women.
9) The author identifies three essential factors according to which theories of aggression are most commonly categorised. Which of the following options is closest to the factors identified by the author?
(1) Psychologically – Sociologically – Medically.
(2) Aggressor – Circumstances of aggression – Victim.
(3) Extreme – Moderate – Mild.
(4) Hostile – Instrumental – Hormonal.
10) The author discusses all of the following arguments in the passage EXCEPT that:
(1) men in general are believed to be more hormonally driven to exhibit violence than women.
(2) several studies indicate that aggression may have roots in the biological condition of humanity.
(3) the nature of aggression can vary depending on several factors, including intent.
(4) aggression in most societies is kept under control through moderating the death instinct identified by Freud.
11) All of the following statements can be seen as logically implied by the arguments of the passage EXCEPT:
(1) the Freudian theory of suicide as self-inflicted aggression implies that an aggressive act need not be sought to be avoided in order for it to be considered aggression.
(2) a common theory of aggression is that it is the result of an abnormally low neural regulation of testosterone.
(3) if the alleged aggressive act is not sought to be avoided, it cannot really be considered aggression.
(4) Freud’s theory of aggression proposes that aggression results from the suppression of aggressive urges.
12) “[A]n enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject.” Which one of the following best explicates the larger point being made by the author here?
(1) Information revealed by subjecting an enemy combatant to torture is not always reliable because of the animosity involved.
(2) When an enemy combatant refuses to reveal information, the use of torture can sometimes involve real feelings of hostility.
(3) In certain kinds of aggression, inflicting pain is not the objective, and is no more than a utilitarian means to achieve another end.
(4) The use of torture to extract information is most effective when the torturer is not emotionally involved in the torture.
Solutions
1) 1
2) 1
3) 3
4) 4
5) 1
6) 3
7) 2
8) 3
9) 2
10) 4
11) 2
12) 3
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