Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:
[CAT 2017 Slot 2]
During the frigid season... it's often necessary to nestle under a blanket to try to stay warm. The temperature difference between the blanket and the air outside is so palpable that we often have trouble leaving our warm refuge. Many plants and animals similarly hunker down, relying on snow cover for safety from winter's harsh conditions. The small area between the snowpack and the ground, called the subnivium... might be the most important ecosystem that you have never heard of.
The subnivium is so well-insulated and stable that its temperature holds steady at around 32 degree Fahrenheit (0 degree Celsius). Although that might still sound cold, a constant temperature of 32 degree Fahrenheit can often be 30 to 40 degrees warmer than the air temperature during the peak of winter. Because of this large temperature difference, a wide variety of species...depend on the subnivium for winter protection.
For many organisms living in temperate and Arctic regions, the difference between being under the snow or outside it is a matter of life and death. Consequently, disruptions to the subnivium brought about by climate change will affect everything from population dynamics to nutrient cycling through the ecosystem.
The formation and stability of the subnivium requires more than a few flurries. Winter ecologists have suggested that eight inches of snow is necessary to develop a stable layer of insulation. Depth is not the only factor, however. More accurately, the stability of the subnivium depends on the interaction between snow depth and snow density. Imagine being under a stack of blankets that are all flattened and pressed together. When compressed, the blankets essentially form one compacted layer. In contrast, when they are lightly placed on top of one another, their insulative capacity increases because the air pockets between them trap heat. Greater depths of low-density snow are therefore better at insulating the ground.
Both depth and density of snow are sensitive to temperature. Scientists are now beginning to explore how climate change will affect the subnivium, as well as the species that depend on it. At first glance, warmer winters seem beneficial for species that have difficulty surviving subzero temperatures; however, as with most ecological phenomena, the consequences are not so straightforward. Research has shown that the snow season (the period when snow is more likely than rain) has become shorter since l970. When rain falls on snow, it increases the density of the snow and reduces its insulative capacity. Therefore, even though winters are expected to become warmer overall from future climate change, the subnivium will tend to become colder and more variable with less protection from the above-ground temperatures.
The effects of a colder subnivium are complex... For example, shrubs such as crowberry and alpine azalea that grow along the forest floor tend to block the wind and so retain higher depths of snow around them. This captured snow helps to keep soils insulated and in turn increases plant decomposition and nutrient release. In field experiments, researchers removed a portion of the snow cover to investigate the importance of the subnivium's insulation. They found that soil frost in the snow-free area resulted in damage to plant roots and sometimes even the death of the plant.
1) The purpose of this passage is to
(1) introduce readers to a relatively unknown ecosystem: the subnivium.
(2) explain how the subnivium works to provide shelter and food to several species.
(3) outline the effects of climate change on the subnivium.
(4) draw an analogy between the effect of blankets on humans and of snow cover on species living in the subnivium.
2) All of the following statements are true EXCEPT
(1) Snow depth and snow density both influence the stability of the subnivium.
(2) Climate change has some positive effects on the subnivium.
(3) The subnivium maintains a steady temperature that can be 30 to 40 degrees warmer than the winter air temperature.
(4) Researchers have established the adverse effects of dwindling snow cover on the subnivium.
3) Based on this extract, the author would support which one of the following actions?
(1) The use of snow machines in winter to ensure snow cover of at least eight inches.
(2) Government action to curb climate change.
(3) Adding nutrients to the soil in winter.
(4) Planting more shrubs in areas of short snow season.
4) In paragraph 6, the author provides the examples of crowberry and alpine azalea to demonstrate that
(1) Despite frigid temperatures, several species survive in temperate and Arctic regions.
(2) Due to frigid temperatures in the temperate and Arctic regions, plant species that survive tend to be shrubs rather than trees.
(3) The crowberry and alpine azalea are abundant in temperate and Arctic regions.
(4) The stability of the subnivium depends on several interrelated factors, including shrubs on the forest floor.
5) Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage?
(1) In an ecosystem, altering any one element has a ripple effect on all others.
(2) Climate change affects temperate and Arctic regions more than equatorial or arid ones.
(3) A compact layer of wool is warmer than a similarly compact layer of goose down.
(4) The loss of the subnivium, while tragic, will affect only temperate and Arctic regions.
6) In paragraph 1, the author uses blankets as a device to
(1) evoke the bitter cold of winter in the minds of readers.
(2) explain how blankets work to keep us warm.
(3) draw an analogy between blankets and the snowpack.
(4) alert readers to the fatal effects of excessive exposure to the cold.
The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
[CAT 2020 Slot 2]
174 incidents of piracy were reported to the International Maritime Bureau last year, with Somali pirates responsible for only three. The rest ranged from the discreet theft of coils of rope in the Yellow Sea to the notoriously ferocious Nigerian gunmen attacking and hijacking oil tankers in the Gulf of Guinea, as well as armed robbery off Singapore and the Venezuelan coast and kidnapping in the Sundarbans in the Bay of Bengal. For [Dr. Peter] Lehr, an expert on modern-day piracy, the phenomenon’s history should be a source of instruction rather than entertainment, piracy past offering lessons for piracy present....
But... where does piracy begin or end? According to St Augustine, a corsair captain once told Alexander the Great that in the forceful acquisition of power and wealth at sea, the difference between an emperor and a pirate was simply one of scale. By this logic, European empire-builders were the most successful pirates of all time. A more eclectic history might have included the conquistadors, Vasco da Gama and the East India Company. But Lehr sticks to the disorganised small fry, making comparisons with the renegades of today possible.
The main motive for piracy has always been a combination of need and greed. Why toil away as a starving peasant in the 16th century when a successful pirate made up to £4,000 on each raid? Anyone could turn to freebooting if the rewards were worth the risk... .
Increased globalisation has done more to encourage piracy than suppress it. European colonialism weakened delicate balances of power, leading to an influx of opportunists on the high seas. A rise in global shipping has meant rich pickings for freebooters. Lehr writes: “It quickly becomes clear that in those parts of the world that have not profited from globalisation and modernisation, and where abject poverty and the daily struggle for survival are still a reality, the root causes of piracy are still the same as they were a couple of hundred years ago.” ...
Modern pirate prevention has failed. After the French yacht Le Gonant was ransomed for 2 million in 2008, opportunists from all over Somalia flocked to the coast for a piece of the action.... A consistent rule, even today, is there are never enough warships to patrol pirate-infested waters. Such ships are costly and only solve the problem temporarily; Somali piracy is bound to return as soon as the warships are withdrawn. Robot shipping, eliminating hostages, has been proposed as a possible solution; but as Lehr points out, this will only make pirates switch their targets to smaller carriers unable to afford the technology.
His advice isn’t new. Proposals to end illegal fishing are often advanced but they are difficult to enforce. Investment in local welfare put a halt to Malaysian piracy in the 1970s, but was dependent on money somehow filtering through a corrupt bureaucracy to the poor on the periphery. Diplomatic initiatives against piracy are plagued by mutual distrust: the Russians execute pirates, while the EU and US are reluctant to capture them for fear they’ll claim asylum.
1) “Why toil away as a starving peasant in the 16th century when a successful pirate made up to £4,000 on each raid?” In this sentence, the author’s tone can best be described as being:
(1) analytical, to explain the contrasts between peasant and pirate life in medieval England.
(2) indignant, at the scale of wealth successful pirates could amass in medieval times.
(3) ironic, about the reasons why so many took to piracy in medieval times.
(4) facetious, about the hardships of peasant life in medieval England.
2) “A more eclectic history might have included the conquistadors, Vasco da Gama and the East India Company. But Lehr sticks to the disorganised small fry . . .” From this statement we can infer that the author believes that:
(1) Lehr does not assign adequate blame to empire builders for their past deeds.
(2) colonialism should be considered an organised form of piracy.
(3) Vasco da Gama and the East India Company laid the ground for modern piracy.
(4) the disorganised piracy of today is no match for the organised piracy of the past.
3) We can deduce that the author believes that piracy can best be controlled in the long run:
(1) through the extensive deployment of technology to track ships and cargo.
(2) through international cooperation in enforcing stringent deterrents.
(3) if we eliminate poverty and income disparities in affected regions.
(4) through lucrative welfare schemes to improve the lives of people in affected regions.
4) The author ascribes the rise in piracy today to all of the following factors EXCEPT:
(1) colonialism’s disruption of historic ties among countries.
(2) decreased surveillance of the high seas.
(3) the high rewards via ransoms for successful piracy attempts.
(4) the growth in international shipping with globalisation.
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